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Preview: grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off

Melatonin Absorption: Forms, Food & Timing, Compared

Dr. Colin Reily, PhDEvidence reviewed by Dr. Colin Reily, PhD · Draft, pending reviewer sign-off · Data built 2026-11-02

Bottom line

A: well characterized in people. Forms: 5+ human studies, 100+ participants, randomized/crossover designs, consistent values. Comparisons: agreeing head-to-head and matched single-form evidence with clear separation. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.

We found 61 studies with usable absorption data for this supplement, 30 of them in people; every value below is copied from its paper and cited.

Immediate-release tablet / capsule is the best-characterized form: 11 human studies (total n=124) with measured absorption values (absorption evidence grade A).

Immediate-release tablet / capsule measured higher than prolonged / extended-release in 1 of 4 human head-to-head studies (grade C).

Studies in database
61 (all full-text)
Species
30 human, 1 primate, 2 pig, 16 rodent, 8 other animal, 4 in vitro

Educational information about published research; not medical advice. Not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease. Talk to a clinician before changing supplements, especially if pregnant, nursing or on medication.

Best-absorbed form

Draft — pending reviewer
  • No form clearly absorbs better: human head-to-head studies in our data do not separate the forms of melatonin.
  • Immediate-release tablet / capsule measured higher than prolonged / extended-release in 1 of 4 human head-to-head studies (grade C).
  • Caveat: these are small studies with mixed results, so no single form can be ranked first.

Absorption evidence only, from the graded comparisons on this page. Not a recommendation to buy any product, not dosing advice, not medical advice.

31 of 61 studies are not in humans; each is labeled with a species badge.

Melatonin forms compared

Peak blood level (Cmax) in human studies, by formRange of values as printed (pg/mL). Studies used different doses and conditions, so this shows spread, not a ranking.
Immediate-release tablet / capsule: 4701–23352 pg/mL (5 studies, 6 values; PMIDs 10690873, 20070489, 31381847, 37150895, 39458580)Immediate-release tablet / capsule4701–23352n=5Liquid / oral solution: 244–14974 pg/mL (2 studies, 5 values; PMIDs 11038434, 18423009)Liquid / oral solution244–14974n=2Sublingual / oral spray: 2380–12776 pg/mL (1 study, 2 values; PMIDs 37438493)Sublingual / oral spray2380–12776n=1Prolonged / extended-release: 52–11447 pg/mL (6 studies, 11 values; PMIDs 22348451, 31381847, 37150895, 37438493, 39174857, 39458580)Prolonged / extended-release52–11447n=6023352 pg/mL
Peak blood level (Cmax) (pg/mL)
FormLowestHighestStudiesPMIDs
Immediate-release tablet / capsule470123352510690873, 20070489, 31381847, 37150895, 39458580
Liquid / oral solution243.714974211038434, 18423009
Sublingual / oral spray238012776137438493
Prolonged / extended-release5211446.87622348451, 31381847, 37150895, 37438493, 39174857, 39458580

n = number of human studies. Full values with doses, sources and citations are in the data tables below.

Melatonin forms and studies
FormStudies (abstract screen)Species
Immediate-release tablet / capsule[PMID 27566320][PMID 24650045][PMID 25046730][PMID 20070489][PMID 18490497][PMID 10690873][PMID 26300641]HumanHumanHumanHumanHumanHumanOther animal
Prolonged / extended-release[PMID 37150895][PMID 39174857][PMID 39458580][PMID 37438493][PMID 31381847][PMID 10085470][PMID 18982259][PMID 3994899][PMID 30731257][PMID 30286985][PMID 32673769][PMID 29702366][PMID 26440286][PMID 38769992]HumanHumanHumanHumanHumanHumanHumanHumanRodentRodentOther animalOther animalOther animalIn vitro
Liquid / oral solution[PMID 36046952][PMID 29194416][PMID 11360039][PMID 39771491][PMID 29109369]HumanHumanHumanRodentRodent
Sublingual / oral spray[PMID 37438493]Human

Form tags are matched automatically and need reviewer confirmation. Values are not normalized across studies.

Species (abstract screen): 17 human, 4 rodent, 4 other animal, 1 in vitro
26 studies (17 human) · show quotes
  • Loading… Each study is also listed with its citation in Studies.

Melatonin immediate-release tablet / capsule vs prolonged / extended-release: which absorbs better?

Immediate-release tablet / capsule measured higher than prolonged / extended-release in 1 of 4 human head-to-head studies (grade C). See the measured values →

Species (abstract screen): no studies
No relevant studies in our database address this question yet. We don't fill gaps with guesses.

Melatonin sublingual / oral spray vs immediate-release tablet / capsule: which absorbs better?

Sublingual / oral spray vs immediate-release tablet / capsule: matched single-form studies only (grade C). See the measured values →

Species (abstract screen): no studies
No relevant studies in our database address this question yet. We don't fill gaps with guesses.

Should you take Melatonin with food?

B: solid human data. Forms: 3+ human studies. Comparisons: one randomized head-to-head, or matched single-form evidence from 2+ studies per form. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.human + animal datahow we gradeSpecies (abstract screen): 8 human, 1 other animal

Grade basis (abstract screen): 6 human randomized/crossover studies; A-eligible only once the reviewer confirms they agree (capped at B until then). Auto-computed draft grade — pending reviewer review.

9 studies (8 human) · show quotes
  • Loading… Each study is also listed with its citation in Studies.

Best time to take Melatonin

B: solid human data. Forms: 3+ human studies. Comparisons: one randomized head-to-head, or matched single-form evidence from 2+ studies per form. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.human + animal datahow we gradeSpecies (abstract screen): 2 human, 1 pig, 1 rodent

Grade basis (abstract screen): 1 human randomized/crossover and 2 human studies in total. Auto-computed draft grade — pending reviewer review.

4 studies (2 human) · show quotes
  • Loading… Each study is also listed with its citation in Studies.

Melatonin cost per mg calculator

Compare what you pay per mg of each form. Shows published ranges only; no dose recommendations.

What it does: divides what you pay by the total mg in the bottle, so you can compare products and forms by cost per mg. Cost per mg absorbed is shown only as a range, and only where cited human studies measured the fraction absorbed for that form (draft, pending reviewer).

Results update as you type.

Example values: replace them with your product's label

Cost per mg (Immediate-release tablet / capsule, from your label)

$0.00333

That's $0.33 per 100 mg and $0.33 per serving.

Cost per mg absorbed, taken without food: $0.021–$0.023 draft

Based on 14.3–15.9% absorbed in 1 human study (absolute bioavailability vs IV melatonin (serum AUC0–inf oral/IV)). Population: healthy adults. Grade C, draft — pending reviewer.

Note: IV-referenced.

Note: IV-referenced. Methods say the 4 mg AUC was dose-adjusted for comparison; unclear whether Table I is adjusted.

Source for the values used: PubMed 10883420

Sources and conditions
  • 14.3% (0.143 (fraction, Table I) × 100 = 14.3%) — 2 mg oral tablet; fasted 8 h before and 4 h after dosing; randomized crossover; healthy volunteers [food: fasted]; healthy adults; n = 12. PubMed 10883420
  • 15.9% (0.159 (fraction, Table I) × 100 = 15.9%) — 4 mg oral tablet; fasted 8 h before and 4 h after dosing; randomized crossover; healthy volunteers [food: fasted]; healthy adults; n = 12. PubMed 10883420

Absorption changes with dose, food, and body stores, so your own figure may fall outside this range.

This tool compares prices using published ranges. It does not estimate how much you personally absorb and does not recommend a dose. Absorption varies with the person, the dose, food and the product. Not medical advice.

FAQ

Which form of Melatonin is best absorbed?

No form clearly absorbs better: human head-to-head studies in our data do not separate the forms of melatonin. Immediate-release tablet / capsule measured higher than prolonged / extended-release in 1 of 4 human head-to-head studies (grade C). Caveat: these are small studies with mixed results, so no single form can be ranked first. See the evidence →

Is Melatonin immediate-release tablet / capsule better absorbed than prolonged / extended-release?

Immediate-release tablet / capsule measured higher than prolonged / extended-release in 1 of 4 human head-to-head studies (grade C). See the evidence →

Is Melatonin sublingual / oral spray better absorbed than immediate-release tablet / capsule?

Sublingual / oral spray vs immediate-release tablet / capsule: matched single-form studies only (grade C). See the evidence →

Should Melatonin be taken with food?

We have 9 relevant studies in our database that mention food or fasting. See the evidence →

When is the best time to take Melatonin?

We have 4 relevant studies in our database that mention timing. See the evidence →

Is this dosing advice?

No. We summarize published absorption research and compare prices. Talk to a clinician about what's right for you. See the evidence →

Answers summarize the data on this page.

Measured absorption data (full-text extraction)

119 papers read in full text, 61 with usable data (58 excluded as off-topic, reviews or off-target). 663 values extracted. Species: Human 30Rodent 16Other animal 8In vitro 4Pig 2Primate 1

Grades: draft — pending reviewer (Dr. Colin Reily). Directions are auto-parsed from author statements; values are copied exactly as printed, never converted or estimated.

Forms with measured values

FormStudiesValuesAbsorption evidence gradeSpecies
Immediate-release tablet / capsule16170A: well characterized in people. Forms: 5+ human studies, 100+ participants, randomized/crossover designs, consistent values. Comparisons: agreeing head-to-head and matched single-form evidence with clear separation. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.
11 human studies, total n=124, 6 randomized/crossover; median CV 41.5% across 4 matched set(s) (consistent)
Human×15Other animal×1
Prolonged / extended-release1071B: solid human data. Forms: 3+ human studies. Comparisons: one randomized head-to-head, or matched single-form evidence from 2+ studies per form. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.
7 human studies, total n=93, 6 randomized/crossover; median CV 59.2% across 7 matched set(s) (consistent)
Human×7Rodent×2Other animal×1
Liquid / oral solution689B: solid human data. Forms: 3+ human studies. Comparisons: one randomized head-to-head, or matched single-form evidence from 2+ studies per form. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.
3 human studies, total n=21, 1 randomized/crossover; consistency not evaluable (no matched set with ≥2 studies)
Human×4Rodent×2
Sublingual / oral spray16C: limited or conflicting human data: 1–2 studies, head-to-head and single-form evidence disagree, or baseline correction not reported. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.
1 human study, total n=13, 1 randomized/crossover; consistency not evaluable (no matched set with ≥2 studies)
Human×1

Single-form studies count as evidence for that form. Form tags are keyword-matched from arm descriptions and need reviewer confirmation.

Head-to-head comparisons

C: limited or conflicting human data: 1–2 studies, head-to-head and single-form evidence disagree, or baseline correction not reported. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.Immediate-release tablet / capsule vs Prolonged / extended-releasecombined head-to-head + matched single-form grade

head-to-head and matched single-form evidence agree. H2H: C (4 human studies (4 randomized/crossover); majority: first form higher (1 agree, 1 contradict)); indirect: C (2 separated matched set(s), ≥2 studies per form, baseline correction not reported)

StudyComparisonParameterAuthor-stated resultp
Human PMID 10085470A vs B and C (dose proportionality)AUCAUC ratio A/B 0.51, A/C 0.43 (5 mg vs 10 mg); authors assume dose proportionality
“the AUC ratios of A (5 mg MLT) to B or C (10 mg MLT each) are 0.51 for A/B and 0.43 for A/C” (Results p.6)
NR
Human PMID 10085470B, C vs A (release pattern)Cmax 2 / tmax 2B and C produce a second serum peak at about 3.5 h; A does not
“The controlled-release forms B and C produce a second serum peak (Cmax 2 between about 13 and 18 pmol/ml) after about 3.5 h (tmax 2).” (Results p.4-6)
NR
Human PMID 31381847CRA vs IRCmax and time above 1,000 pg/mLCRA lower Cmax (4,690 vs 23,352 pg/mL) and longer time above threshold (6.7 vs 3.7 h)
“median Cmax of 4,690 pg/mL ... compared to ... 23,352 pg/mL; ... median of 6.7 hours ... compared with ... 3.7 hours” (Results)
NR
Human PMID 37150895ER vs IRCmaxER < IR
“The extended-release melatonin had a lower maximum concentration (Cmax, p < 0.002)” (Table 2; Results p.9)
0.002
Human PMID 37150895ER vs IRTmaxER > IR
“longer time to reach maximum concentration in the blood (Tmax = 1.56 h, p < 0.001)” (Table 2; Results p.9)
<0.001
Human PMID 37150895ER vs IRAUC0-10hno difference
“no significant differences in AUC and iAUC(0-10h)” (Table 2)
0.417
Human PMID 37150895ER vs IRiAUC0-10hno difference (values not reported)
“no significant differences in AUC and iAUC(0-10h)” (Results p.9)
no
Human PMID 37150895ER vs IRkaER < IR
“lower for extended-release melatonin ... indicating a slower rate of absorption (77% less)” (Results p.9; Table 2)
<0.001
Human PMID 37150895ER vs IRlambda (ke)ER < IR
“terminal disposition rate constant (λ) (p < 0.001) were lower for extended-release” (Results p.9; Table 2)
<0.001
Human PMID 37150895ER vs IRta1/2text: IR > ER; Table 2 values: ER > IR
“absorption half-life (ta1/2) (p < 0.002) was greater with the immediate-release formulation” (Results p.9; Table 2)
0.002
Human PMID 37150895ER vs IRt1/2ER > IR
“terminal half-life (t1/2) however, was greater with the extended-release formulation” (Results p.9; Table 2)
<0.001
Human PMID 37150895ER vs IRmean plasma melatonin at individual timepointsdiffered at 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 h
“differences in the mean plasma melatonin concentrations were noted at timepoints 0.25 h (p < 0.001), 0.5 h (p < 0.001), 0.75 h (p = 0.003)” (Results p.8)
0.25 h <0.001; 0.5 h <0.001; 0.75 h 0.003; 1 h 0.038; 2 h 0.031; 3 h 0.006; 4 h 0.004; 5 h 0.005; 6 h 0.011
Human PMID 39458580SR vs IRCmaxSR lower
“Melatonin-SR reported a lower Cmax (11,446.87 pg/mL) compared to Melatonin-IR (22,786.30 pg/mL)” (Table 2)
<0.05
Human PMID 39458580SR vs IRAUC0-tSR lower<0.05
Human PMID 39458580SR vs IRAUC0-infSR lower<0.05
Human PMID 39458580SR vs IRplasma concentration 4-8 hSR higher
“noteworthy though not significant (p > 0.05)” (Results p.7)
>0.05
C: limited or conflicting human data: 1–2 studies, head-to-head and single-form evidence disagree, or baseline correction not reported. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.Sublingual / oral spray vs Immediate-release tablet / capsulecombined head-to-head + matched single-form grade

matched single-form evidence only. H2H: none (no direct comparison in extracted data); indirect: C (1 separated matched set(s), ≥1 studies per form, baseline correction not reported)

Cmax, Tmax and AUC by study arm (653 values)
StudyArm / formDoseFednAnalyteParamValueUnitsSource
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
5 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 1
20.74 pmol/mlTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
5 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Tmax
tmax 1
0.50 hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
5 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)AUC
AUC0-tlast
18.35 pmol/ml×hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
5 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)AUC
AUC0-inf
18.41 pmol/ml×hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 1
16.43 pmol/mlTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 2
13.04 pmol/mlTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Tmax
tmax 1
0.75. hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Tmax
tmax 2
3.50 hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)AUC
AUC0-tlast
36.09 pmol/ml×hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)AUC
AUC0-inf
36.40 pmol/ml×hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + controlled-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 1
9.73 pmol/mlTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + controlled-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 2
17.41 pmol/mlTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + controlled-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Tmax
tmax 1
0.50 hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + controlled-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Tmax
tmax 2
3.50 hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + controlled-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)AUC
AUC0-tlast
42.38 pmol/ml×hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + controlled-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)AUC
AUC0-inf
42.67 pmol/ml×hTable 1
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
5 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 1 (Abstract)
20.7 pmol/mlAbstract
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 1 (Abstract)
16.4 pmol/mlAbstract
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + controlled-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 1 (Abstract)
9.7 pmol/mlAbstract
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 2 (Abstract)
13.0 pmol/mlAbstract
Human 10085470
fast-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + controlled-release tablet 2.5 mg MLT + enteric coated controlled-release tablet 5 mg MLT (pulsatile) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)fasted 10 h, with 150 ml mineral water15melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 2 (Abstract)
17.5 pmol/mlAbstract
Human 10085470
capsule B (as above) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)food withheld 36 h; water ad libitum6melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 1 (dogs)
80 pmol/mlResults p.4 (in vivo studies)
Human 10085470
capsule B (as above) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)food withheld 36 h; water ad libitum6melatonin (MLT) (serum)Cmax
Cmax 2 (dogs)
40 pmol/mlResults p.4 (in vivo studies)
Human 10085470
capsule B (as above) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)food withheld 36 h; water ad libitum6melatonin (MLT) (serum)Tmax
tmax 1 (dogs)
1 hResults p.4
Human 10085470
capsule B (as above) (Jenapharm (hard gelatine capsule containing tablets))
10 mg melatonin (active compound)food withheld 36 h; water ad libitum6melatonin (MLT) (serum)Tmax
tmax 2 (dogs)
5 hResults p.4
Human 10407218
melatonin (formulation NR)
5 mg (active compound)light breakfast 0800 h then fasted; dosed at -60 min before exercise (study began 1400 h)7melatonin (serum/plasma (see note))Cmax
mean peak value after oral ingestion
1638 ± 61.9 (SEM)pg/mlResults p.24 (para 1)
Human 10690873
tablet (Novartis Consumer Health tablet (manufacturer given))
3 mg (active compound)overnight fast, light breakfast 0700-0800 h, dose at 1000 h17melatonin (serum)Cmax
peak serum MLT 60 min after 3 mg
4,701 ± 6,415 (SD)pg/mLTable 2 (Exp 2)
quote mismatch, check
Human 10690873
tablet (Novartis Consumer Health tablet (manufacturer given))
3 mg (active compound)overnight fast, light breakfast 0700-0800 h, dose at 1000 h17melatonin (serum)Tmax
time of peak
60 minResults, Study 2
Human 10690873
tablet (Novartis Consumer Health tablet (manufacturer given))
3 mg (active compound)overnight fast, light breakfast 0700-0800 h, dose at 1000 h17melatonin (serum)AUC
AUCMLT
9,514 ± 9,152 (SD)pg/h·mLTable 2 (Exp 2)
quote mismatch, check
Human 10690873
none (NA)
0 (NR)NR16endogenous melatonin (serum)AUC
overnight AUCMLT
557.9 ± 178.4 (SD)pg/h·mLTable 2 (Exp 1)
Human 10883420
oral tablet (Nature's Bounty, lot 38798 01)
2 mg (active compound)fasted12melatonin (serum)AUC
AUC0-inf
237.77 ± 149.79 (SD)ng·min/mLTable I
Human 10883420
oral tablet (Nature's Bounty, lot 38798 01)
2 mg (active compound)fasted12melatonin (serum)Cmax
peak serum concentration
2175 ± 1645 (SD)pg/mlTable I
Human 10883420
oral tablet (Nature's Bounty, lot 38798 01)
2 mg (active compound)fasted12melatonin (serum)Tmax
tmax
52.0 ± 31.5 (SD)minTable I
Human 10883420
oral tablet (Nature's Bounty, lot 38798 01)
4 mg (active compound)fasted12melatonin (serum)AUC
AUC0-inf
530.57 ± 267.29 (SD)ng·min/mLTable I
Human 10883420
oral tablet (Nature's Bounty, lot 38798 01)
4 mg (active compound)fasted12melatonin (serum)Cmax
peak serum concentration
5766 ± 2731 (SD)pg/mlTable I
Human 10883420
oral tablet (Nature's Bounty, lot 38798 01)
4 mg (active compound)fasted12melatonin (serum)Tmax
tmax
60.3 ± 31.6 (SD)minTable I
Human 10883420
IV bolus over 3 min, 100 µg/ml prepared from powder (Regis Technologies) (NA (IND #53,749))
2 mg (active compound)fasted12melatonin (serum)AUC
AUC0-inf
1631.61 ± 425.74 (SD)ng·min/mLTable I
Human 10883420
IV bolus over 3 min, 100 µg/ml prepared from powder (Regis Technologies) (NA (IND #53,749))
2 mg (active compound)fasted12melatonin (serum)Cmax
peak serum concentration
96,850 ± 55,024 (SD)pg/mlTable I
Human 10883420
IV bolus over 3 min, 100 µg/ml prepared from powder (Regis Technologies) (NA (IND #53,749))
2 mg (active compound)fasted12melatonin (serum)Tmax
tmax
1.79 ± 1.41 (SD)minTable I
Human 11038434
IV infusion in 500 mL isotonic solution, 10:00-12:00 h (Besins-Iscovesco (D7 MLT))
23 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Cmax124.8 ± 32.8 (SD)pg/mLTable 1
Human 11038434
IV infusion in 500 mL isotonic solution, 10:00-12:00 h (Besins-Iscovesco (D7 MLT))
23 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Tmax1.89 ± 0.17 (SD)hTable 1
Human 11038434
IV infusion in 500 mL isotonic solution, 10:00-12:00 h (Besins-Iscovesco (D7 MLT))
23 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)AUC254.8 ± 58.8 (SD)pg.h/mLTable 1
Human 11038434
IV infusion (Besins-Iscovesco)
23 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Cmax169.0 ± 29.6 (SD)pg/mLTable 1
Human 11038434
IV infusion (Besins-Iscovesco)
23 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Tmax1.84 ± 0.18 (SD)hTable 1
Human 11038434
IV infusion (Besins-Iscovesco)
23 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)AUC364.1 ± 63.6 (SD)pg.h/mLTable 1
Human 11038434
oral solution with 200 mL water, midday (Besins-Iscovesco, Montrouge, France)
250 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Cmax243.7 ± 124.6 (SD)pg/mLTable 2
Human 11038434
oral solution with 200 mL water, midday (Besins-Iscovesco, Montrouge, France)
250 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Tmax0.38 ± 0.14 (SD)hTable 2
Human 11038434
oral solution with 200 mL water, midday (Besins-Iscovesco, Montrouge, France)
250 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)AUC236.0 ± 107.3 (SD)pg.h/mLTable 2
Human 11038434
oral solution with 200 mL water, midday (Besins-Iscovesco)
250 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Cmax623.6 ± 575.1 (SD)pg/mLTable 2
Human 11038434
oral solution with 200 mL water, midday (Besins-Iscovesco)
250 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Tmax0.38 ± 0.14 (SD)hTable 2
Human 11038434
oral solution with 200 mL water, midday (Besins-Iscovesco)
250 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)AUC701.4 ± 644.8 (SD)pg.h/mLTable 2
Human 11038434
oral solution with 200 mL water, midday (Besins-Iscovesco, Montrouge, France)
250 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Cmax
text, mean ± SD
243.7 ± 124.6 (SD)pg/mLAbstract / Results p.19
Human 11038434
oral solution with 200 mL water, midday (Besins-Iscovesco)
250 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Cmax
text, mean ± SD
623.6 ± 575.1 (SD)pg/mLAbstract / Results p.19
Human 11038434
oral solution with 200 mL water, midday (Besins-Iscovesco, Montrouge, France)
250 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)AUC
text, mean ± SD
236 ± 107 (SD)pg.h/mLAbstract / Results p.19
Human 11038434
oral solution with 200 mL water, midday (Besins-Iscovesco)
250 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)AUC
text, mean ± SD
701 ± 645 (SD)pg.h/mLAbstract / Results p.19
Human 11038434
 D7 melatonin (plasma)Tmax
mean oral Tmax
23 minResults p.19
Human 11038434
IV infusion in 500 mL isotonic solution, 10:00-12:00 h (Besins-Iscovesco (D7 MLT))
23 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Cmax
range of concentrations at end of infusion
88.8 to 164.4 pg/mLResults p.19
Human 11038434
IV infusion (Besins-Iscovesco)
23 µg (active compound)fasted6D7 melatonin (plasma)Cmax
range of concentrations at end of infusion
102.7 to 195.3 pg/mLResults p.19
Human 11360039
oral melatonin (formulation NR)
25 mg (NR)NR1melatonin (plasma)Cmax19.2 ng/mLResults, Volunteer Sample p.285
Human 11360039
oral melatonin (formulation NR)
25 mg (NR)NR16-hydroxymelatonin (total, after hydrolysis) (plasma)Cmax694 ng/mLResults, Volunteer Sample p.285

Showing 60 of 653 Cmax/Tmax/AUC values (human first). All 663 values are in /api/supplements/melatonin.

References for this section (9)
  1. Human Hoffmann A, Farker K, Dittgen M, Hoffmann H. A melatonin preparation with a pulsatile liberation pattern: a new form of melatonin in replacement therapy. Biological signals and receptors. 1999;8(1-2):96-104. PMID 10085470. doi:10.1159/000014576 PubMed · DOI · randomized crossover (open, single-dose, 3-way crossover; sequences ABC, BCA, CAB); Abstract says "randomised, single-dose, threefold cross-over", n=15 humans; 6 dogs
  2. Human Meeking DR, Wallace JD, Cuneo RC, Forsling M, Russell-Jones DL. Exercise-induced GH secretion is enhanced by the oral ingestion of melatonin in healthy adult male subjects. European journal of endocrinology. 1999;141(1):22-6. PMID 10407218. doi:10.1530/eje.0.1410022 PubMed · DOI · randomized crossover (randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled), n=7
  3. Human Kovács J, Brodner W, Kirchlechner V, Arif T, Waldhauser F. Measurement of urinary melatonin: a useful tool for monitoring serum melatonin after its oral administration. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2000;85(2):666-70. PMID 10690873. doi:10.1210/jcem.85.2.6349 PubMed · DOI · single-arm (Study 2 exogenous); observational (Study 1 endogenous), n=Study 1: 16; Study 2: 17
  4. Human DeMuro RL, Nafziger AN, Blask DE, Menhinick AM, Bertino JS Jr. The absolute bioavailability of oral melatonin. Journal of clinical pharmacology. 2000;40(7):781-4. PMID 10883420. doi:10.1177/00912700022009422 PubMed · DOI · randomized crossover, n=13 enrolled; 12 completed
  5. Human Fourtillan JB, Brisson AM, Gobin P, Ingrand I, Decourt JP, Girault J. Bioavailability of melatonin in humans after day-time administration of D(7) melatonin. Biopharmaceutics & drug disposition. 2000;21(1):15-22. PMID 11038434. doi:10.1002/1099-081x(200001)21:1<15::aid-bdd215>3.0.co;2-h PubMed · DOI · randomized crossover (two-way crossover; randomization not explicitly stated), n=12
  6. Human Härtter S, Morita S, Bodin K, Ursing C, Tybring G, Bertilsson L. Determination of exogenous melatonin and its 6-hydroxy metabolite in human plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Therapeutic drug monitoring. 2001;23(3):282-6. PMID 11360039. doi:10.1097/00007691-200106000-00017 PubMed · DOI · single-arm, n=1
  7. Human Seiden DJ, Shah SM. A Randomized, Crossover, Pharmacokinetics Evaluation of a Novel Continuous Release and Absorption Melatonin Formulation. The primary care companion for CNS disorders. 2019;21(4). PMID 31381847. doi:10.4088/PCC.19m02450 PubMed · DOI · randomized crossover, n=10
  8. Human Mun JG, Wang D, Doerflein Fulk DL, Fakhary M, Gualco SJ, Grant RW, Mitmesser SH. A Randomized, Double-Blind, Crossover Study to Investigate the Pharmacokinetics of Extended-Release Melatonin Compared to Immediate-Release Melatonin in Healthy Adults. Journal of dietary supplements. 2024;21(2):182-194. PMID 37150895. doi:10.1080/19390211.2023.2206475 PubMed · DOI · randomized crossover (double-blind, comparator-controlled), n=18 randomized; 17 per-protocol
  9. Human Thanawala S, Abiraamasundari R, Shah R. Comparative Pharmacokinetics of Sustained-Release versus Immediate-Release Melatonin Capsules in Fasting Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Open-Label, Cross-Over Study. Pharmaceutics. 2024;16(10). PMID 39458580. doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics16101248 PubMed · DOI · randomized crossover (open-label, balanced, two-treatment, two-sequence, two-period), n=16

Indirect comparisons (across studies)

Each form's values come from different human studies that tested one form only. Rows are compared only when parameter, analyte, matrix, fed/fasted state, single vs repeated dosing, AUC interval and units all match, and baseline correction matches where reported (a value with baseline correction not reported is labeled and capped at grade D). Serum and plasma are treated as the same matrix. Ranges are the lowest and highest printed values; nothing is averaged or pooled. Conditions a paper does not state are recorded as NR and never matched.

Indirect comparison: weighs less than head-to-head evidence; comparisons using values with baseline correction not reported are capped at C. The combined grade for named pairs is shown in the head-to-head section. draft — pending reviewer (Dr. Colin Reily).

Indirect comparisonImmediate-release tablet / capsule vs Prolonged / extended-releaseD: animal or lab data only, or conflicting comparisons. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.baseline correction not reportedHead-to-head grade: C (takes precedence)

non-overlapping ranges but <2 studies per form (single-study ranges); uses value(s) with baseline correction not reported (capped at C under rubric v2). Head-to-head evidence exists and takes precedence over this indirect comparison.

Matched conditionsImmediate-release tablet / capsule: range (studies, n)Prolonged / extended-release: range (studies, n)RangesPMIDs
Human Cmax, melatonin, serum/plasma, fed, single dose, baseline-corrected: no
baseline correction not reported (grade capped at C)
values as printed (doses not normalized)
4701–11039.84 pg/ml
2 studies, n=23
4,701 @ 3 mg (PMID 10690873); 11039.84 @ 3 mg (PMID 20070489)
52–1151 pg/ml
3 studies, n=35
52 @ 0.4 mg (PMID 22348451); 61 @ 4.0 mg (PMID 22348451); 1151 @ 1.9 mg (PMID 37438493); 740 @ 1.9 mg (PMID 39174857); 1151 @ 1.9 mg (PMID 39174857)
do not overlap; Immediate-release tablet / capsule higher1069087320070489223484513743849339174857
Human Cmax, melatonin, serum/plasma, fed, single dose, baseline-corrected: not reported
baseline correction not reported (grade capped at C)
values as printed (doses not normalized)
4701–11039.84 pg/ml
2 studies, n=23
4,701 @ 3 mg (PMID 10690873); 11039.84 @ 3 mg (PMID 20070489)
740–1151 pg/ml
2 studies, n=25
1151 @ 1.9 mg (PMID 37438493); 740 @ 1.9 mg (PMID 39174857); 1151 @ 1.9 mg (PMID 39174857)
do not overlap; Immediate-release tablet / capsule higher10690873200704893743849339174857
Human Tmax, melatonin, serum/plasma, fed, single dose, baseline-corrected: no
baseline correction not reported (grade capped at C)
values as printed (doses not normalized)
0.27–0.46 h
2 studies, n=11
0.27 @ 3 mg (PMID 20070489); 0.46 @ 2 mg (PMID 3994899)
4.7–5.1 h
1 study, n=10
4.7 @ 0.4 mg (PMID 22348451); 5.1 @ 4.0 mg (PMID 22348451)
do not overlap; Immediate-release tablet / capsule faster20070489223484513994899
Human Tmax, melatonin, serum/plasma, fed, single dose, baseline-corrected: not reported
baseline correction not reported (grade capped at C)
values as printed (doses not normalized)
60 min
1 study, n=17
60 @ 3 mg (PMID 10690873)
64–179 min
2 studies, n=25
64.2 @ 1.9 mg (PMID 37438493); 179 @ 1.9 mg (PMID 39174857); 64 @ 1.9 mg (PMID 39174857)
do not overlap; Immediate-release tablet / capsule faster106908733743849339174857
Indirect comparisonImmediate-release tablet / capsule vs Sublingual / oral sprayD: animal or lab data only, or conflicting comparisons. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.baseline correction not reported

non-overlapping ranges but <2 studies per form (single-study ranges); uses value(s) with baseline correction not reported (capped at C under rubric v2). No head-to-head grade; indirect only.

Matched conditionsImmediate-release tablet / capsule: range (studies, n)Sublingual / oral spray: range (studies, n)RangesPMIDs
Human Cmax, melatonin, serum/plasma, fed, single dose, baseline-corrected: not reported
baseline correction not reported (grade capped at C)
values as printed (doses not normalized)
4701–13120 pg/ml
3 studies, n=40
4,701 @ 3 mg (PMID 10690873); 11039.84 @ 3 mg (PMID 20070489); 13120 @ 4 mg (PMID 37150895)
2380 pg/ml
1 study, n=13
2380 @ 1 mg (PMID 37438493)
do not overlap; Immediate-release tablet / capsule higher10690873200704893715089537438493
Human Tmax, melatonin, serum/plasma, fed, single dose, baseline-corrected: not reported
baseline correction not reported (grade capped at C)
values as printed (doses not normalized)
60 min
1 study, n=17
60 @ 3 mg (PMID 10690873)
23.3 min
1 study, n=13
23.3 @ 1 mg (PMID 37438493)
do not overlap; Sublingual / oral spray faster1069087337438493

Pairs that cannot be compared indirectly yet

  • Immediate-release tablet / capsule vs Liquid / oral solution: no matched condition set: arms differ on dosing
  • Prolonged / extended-release vs Liquid / oral solution: no matched condition set: arms differ on dosing
  • Prolonged / extended-release vs Sublingual / oral spray: all arms come from the same studies (head-to-head only, see above)
  • Liquid / oral solution vs Sublingual / oral spray: no matched condition set: arms differ on dosing
How this table was built
Indirect (cross-study) PK comparisons from bundle_v2 single-form human arms.
Values are copied as printed. Matching key: parameter, analyte, matrix, fed/fasted, single vs repeated,
AUC interval (from parameter_detail), baseline correction, units (exact). No pooling/averaging: per-form
ranges are min–max of printed values. Analyte for minerals/B12 is classed as total element vs isotope/radiotracer; units compared after removing spaces/separators only; IV arms excluded; serum and plasma treated as the same matrix; curated magnesium v1 rows (mapped from stated conditions only, NR otherwise, deduped against the bundle) are included; baseline correction NR is treated as unknown (may match corrected or uncorrected sets; labeled and capped at C); for % absorption endpoints an unreported baseline correction is treated as not applicable. Normalization: value / elemental dose (mg) ONLY when dose_basis is
'elemental', dose unit is mg, single dose, baseline-corrected=yes, parameter Cmax/AUC. Grade capped at C.
Run after merge_bundle.py.

Evidence grades

Rubric v2: single-form human studies count. Hover or focus a grade for what it means; see the methodology. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.

QuestionGrade & basisSpecies
Page grade (best of the grades below)A: well characterized in people. Forms: 5+ human studies, 100+ participants, randomized/crossover designs, consistent values. Comparisons: agreeing head-to-head and matched single-form evidence with clear separation. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.rubric v2, draft
Immediate-release tablet / capsule: absorption evidenceA: well characterized in people. Forms: 5+ human studies, 100+ participants, randomized/crossover designs, consistent values. Comparisons: agreeing head-to-head and matched single-form evidence with clear separation. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.
11 human studies, total n=124, 6 randomized/crossover; median CV 41.5% across 4 matched set(s) (consistent)
human
Prolonged / extended-release: absorption evidenceB: solid human data. Forms: 3+ human studies. Comparisons: one randomized head-to-head, or matched single-form evidence from 2+ studies per form. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.
7 human studies, total n=93, 6 randomized/crossover; median CV 59.2% across 7 matched set(s) (consistent)
human
Liquid / oral solution: absorption evidenceB: solid human data. Forms: 3+ human studies. Comparisons: one randomized head-to-head, or matched single-form evidence from 2+ studies per form. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.
3 human studies, total n=21, 1 randomized/crossover; consistency not evaluable (no matched set with ≥2 studies)
human
Sublingual / oral spray: absorption evidenceC: limited or conflicting human data: 1–2 studies, head-to-head and single-form evidence disagree, or baseline correction not reported. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.
1 human study, total n=13, 1 randomized/crossover; consistency not evaluable (no matched set with ≥2 studies)
human
Immediate-release tablet / capsule vs Prolonged / extended-releaseC: limited or conflicting human data: 1–2 studies, head-to-head and single-form evidence disagree, or baseline correction not reported. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.
head-to-head and matched single-form evidence agree. H2H: C (4 human studies (4 randomized/crossover); majority: first form higher (1 agree, 1 contradict)); indirect: C (2 separated matched set(s), ≥2 studies per form, baseline correction not reported)
human (head-to-head + matched single-form)
Sublingual / oral spray vs Immediate-release tablet / capsuleC: limited or conflicting human data: 1–2 studies, head-to-head and single-form evidence disagree, or baseline correction not reported. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.
matched single-form evidence only. H2H: none (no direct comparison in extracted data); indirect: C (1 separated matched set(s), ≥1 studies per form, baseline correction not reported)
human (head-to-head + matched single-form)
With food (abstract screen)B: solid human data. Forms: 3+ human studies. Comparisons: one randomized head-to-head, or matched single-form evidence from 2+ studies per form. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.human + animal datahow we grade
6 human randomized/crossover studies; A-eligible only once the reviewer confirms they agree (capped at B until then). Auto-computed draft grade — pending reviewer review.
8 human, 1 other animal
Best time (abstract screen)B: solid human data. Forms: 3+ human studies. Comparisons: one randomized head-to-head, or matched single-form evidence from 2+ studies per form. All grades are drafts pending reviewer sign-off.human + animal datahow we grade
1 human randomized/crossover and 2 human studies in total. Auto-computed draft grade — pending reviewer review.
2 human, 1 pig, 1 rodent

Studies (61)

Sorted human → primate → pig → rodent → other animal → in vitro. Quotes are verbatim from the abstract or free full text. Paywalled papers: abstract only.

Show all 61 studies and quotes
  1. HumanPharmacokinetics of Intravenous Melatonin in Preschool-Aged Pediatric Surgical Patients.
    Paediatric anaesthesia, 2026 · Design: single-arm · n: 20 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 42325096DOI 10.1002/pan.70248 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    3 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  2. HumanMelatonin for prevention of delirium in patients receiving mechanical ventilation in the intensive care unit: a multiarm multistage adaptive randomized controlled clinical trial (DEMEL).
    Intensive care medicine, 2025 · Design: RCT (multiarm multistage adaptive phase 2b/3, placebo-controlled, double-blind) · n: 355 randomized; 334 ITT; 75 in activity-stage PK analysis · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 40608082DOI 10.1007/s00134-025-08002-z (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    2 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  3. HumanA Randomized, Double-Blind, Crossover Study to Investigate the Pharmacokinetics of Extended-Release Melatonin Compared to Immediate-Release Melatonin in Healthy Adults.
    Journal of dietary supplements, 2024 · Design: randomized crossover (double-blind, comparator-controlled) · n: 18 randomized; 17 per-protocol · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 37150895DOI 10.1080/19390211.2023.2206475
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  4. HumanMelatonin Bioavailability After Oral Administration of a New Delayed-Release Form in Healthy Male Volunteers.
    Drugs in R&D, 2024 · Design: open-label, single-arm, single-centre bioavailability study (compared with historical prolonged-release data from a previous study) · n: 14 included; 12 in PK analysis · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 39174857DOI 10.1007/s40268-024-00482-6 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  5. HumanComparative Pharmacokinetics of Sustained-Release versus Immediate-Release Melatonin Capsules in Fasting Healthy Adults: A Randomized, Open-Label, Cross-Over Study.
    Pharmaceutics, 2024 · Design: randomized crossover (open-label, balanced, two-treatment, two-sequence, two-period) · n: 16 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 39458580DOI 10.3390/pharmaceutics16101248 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    6 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  6. HumanBioavailability of Melatonin after Administration of an Oral Prolonged-Release Tablet and an Immediate-Release Sublingual Spray in Healthy Male Volunteers.
    Drugs in R&D, 2023 · Design: randomized crossover (single-center, open-label) · n: 14 included; PK in 13 per form (text); Table 1 states 12 volunteers · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 37438493DOI 10.1007/s40268-023-00431-9 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  7. HumanDose assessment of melatonin in sepsis (DAMSEL2) study: Pharmacokinetics of two doses of oral melatonin in patients with sepsis.
    Journal of pineal research, 2022 · Design: open-label · n: 10 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 36046952DOI 10.1111/jpi.12830 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    8 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  8. HumanPharmacokinetics and Safety of Intravenous, Intravesical, Rectal, Transdermal, and Vaginal Melatonin in Healthy Female Volunteers: A Cross-Over Study.
    Pharmacology, 2021 · Design: randomized crossover (route order not stated in extracted text; 5 sessions) · n: 10 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 32937627DOI 10.1159/000510252
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    6 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  9. HumanMelatonin pharmacokinetics and dose extrapolation after enteral infusion in neonates subjected to hypothermia.
    Journal of pineal research, 2019 · Design: single-arm · n: 5 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 30734962DOI 10.1111/jpi.12565
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    9 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  10. HumanA Randomized, Crossover, Pharmacokinetics Evaluation of a Novel Continuous Release and Absorption Melatonin Formulation.
    The primary care companion for CNS disorders, 2019 · Design: randomized crossover · n: 10 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 31381847DOI 10.4088/PCC.19m02450
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    4 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  11. HumanMelatonin Pharmacological Blood Levels Increase Total Antioxidant Capacity in Critically Ill Patients.
    International journal of molecular sciences, 2017 · Design: RCT · n: 64 enrolled (placebo 29, melatonin 35 per Table 1) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 28368352DOI 10.3390/ijms18040759 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    8 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  12. HumanMelatonin Pharmacokinetics Following Oral Administration in Preterm Neonates.
    Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 2017 · Design: RCT · n: 15 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 29194416DOI 10.3390/molecules22122115 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    2 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  13. HumanPharmacokinetics of Repeated Melatonin Drug Administrations Prior to and After Surgery.
    Clinical drug investigation, 2016 · Design: other (prospective two-phase cohort, same patients dosed twice) · n: 12 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 27566320DOI 10.1007/s40261-016-0452-5
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    6 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  14. HumanMelatonin as a potential therapy for sepsis: a phase I dose escalation study and an ex vivo whole blood model under conditions of sepsis.
    Journal of pineal research, 2014 · Design: open-label · n: 20 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 24650045DOI 10.1111/jpi.12134 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    8 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  15. HumanSoft gel capsules improve melatonin's bioavailability in humans.
    Expert opinion on drug metabolism & toxicology, 2014 · Design: parallel · n: 60 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 25046730DOI 10.1517/17425255.2014.943183
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  16. HumanPlasma insulin, leptin, adiponectin, resistin, ghrelin, and melatonin in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis patients treated with melatonin.
    Journal of pineal research, 2013 · Design: other (single-arm open-label treatment study with healthy control group for baseline only) · n: 16 NASH patients + 15 controls · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 22804755DOI 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2012.01023.x
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    3 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  17. HumanMelatonin pharmacokinetics following two different oral surge-sustained release doses in older adults.
    Journal of pineal research, 2012 · Design: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled parallel PK substudy · n: 27 (8 placebo, 9 low dose, 10 high dose) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes (free in PMC)
    PMID 22348451DOI 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2011.00958.x (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  18. HumanPharmacokinetics of orally administered melatonin in critically ill patients.
    Journal of pineal research, 2010 · Design: open-label, single-arm, two sequential cohorts (prospective interventional) · n: 12 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 20070489DOI 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2009.00737.x
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    5 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  19. HumanOral melatonin reduces blood coagulation activity: a placebo-controlled study in healthy young men.
    Journal of pineal research, 2008 · Design: RCT (single-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel) · n: 46 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 18289163DOI 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2007.00499.x
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    2 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  20. HumanMelatonin therapy to improve nocturnal sleep in critically ill patients: encouraging results from a small randomised controlled trial.
    Critical care (London, England), 2008 · Design: RCT (double-blind, placebo-controlled) with PK sub-analysis in melatonin group · n: 24 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 18423009DOI 10.1186/cc6871 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    3 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  21. HumanThe effect of oral contraceptives on the pharmacokinetics of melatonin in healthy subjects with CYP1A2 g.-163C>A polymorphism.
    Journal of clinical pharmacology, 2008 · Design: open-label, single-dose, parallel-group, 4 study groups · n: 29 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 18490497DOI 10.1177/0091270008318669
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  22. HumanDetermination of exogenous melatonin and its 6-hydroxy metabolite in human plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.
    Therapeutic drug monitoring, 2001 · Design: single-arm · n: 1 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 11360039DOI 10.1097/00007691-200106000-00017
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    4 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  23. HumanMeasurement of urinary melatonin: a useful tool for monitoring serum melatonin after its oral administration.
    The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 2000 · Design: single-arm (Study 2 exogenous); observational (Study 1 endogenous) · n: Study 1: 16; Study 2: 17 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 10690873DOI 10.1210/jcem.85.2.6349
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    4 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  24. HumanThe absolute bioavailability of oral melatonin.
    Journal of clinical pharmacology, 2000 · Design: randomized crossover · n: 13 enrolled; 12 completed · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 10883420DOI 10.1177/00912700022009422
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    5 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  25. HumanBioavailability of melatonin in humans after day-time administration of D(7) melatonin.
    Biopharmaceutics & drug disposition, 2000 · Design: randomized crossover (two-way crossover; randomization not explicitly stated) · n: 12 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 11038434DOI 10.1002/1099-081x(200001)21:1<15::aid-bdd215>3.0.co;2-h
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  26. HumanA melatonin preparation with a pulsatile liberation pattern: a new form of melatonin in replacement therapy.
    Biological signals and receptors, 1999 · Design: randomized crossover (open, single-dose, 3-way crossover; sequences ABC, BCA, CAB); Abstract says "randomised, single-dose, threefold cross-over" · n: 15 humans; 6 dogs · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 10085470DOI 10.1159/000014576
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    7 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  27. HumanExercise-induced GH secretion is enhanced by the oral ingestion of melatonin in healthy adult male subjects.
    European journal of endocrinology, 1999 · Design: randomized crossover (randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled) · n: 7 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 10407218DOI 10.1530/eje.0.1410022
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    2 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  28. HumanBatch variation and pharmacokinetics of oral sustained release melatonin-loaded sugar spheres in human subjects.
    Archives of pharmacal research, 1997 · Design: parallel (two groups of subjects, one batch each); in vitro dissolution of 3 batches · n: 10 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 18982259DOI 10.1007/BF02975211
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    8 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  29. HumanPET and plasma pharmacokinetic studies after bolus intravenous administration of [11C]melatonin in humans.
    International journal of radiation applications and instrumentation. Part B, Nuclear medicine and biology, 1991 · Design: single-arm (n=1), PET plus plasma PK · n: 1 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 2071448DOI 10.1016/0883-2897(91)90132-5
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    4 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  30. HumanPlasma concentrations of melatonin in man following oral absorption of different preparations.
    British journal of clinical pharmacology, 1985 · Design: open-label, non-randomized (order of treatments not randomised), fed vs fasted within each preparation · n: 12 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes (free in PMC)
    PMID 3994899DOI 10.1111/j.1365-2125.1985.tb02679.x (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    6 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  31. PrimatePharmacokinetics and oral bioavailability of exogenous melatonin in preclinical animal models and clinical implications.
    Journal of pineal research, 1997 · Design: other (IV/oral crossover in dogs and monkeys with washout; parallel groups in rats) · n: rat 6 per route; dog 2; monkey 2 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 9062870DOI 10.1111/j.1600-079x.1997.tb00302.x
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  32. PigDietary effects of melatonin on growth performance by modulation of protein bioavailability and behavior in early weaned rats and pigs.
    Journal of animal science and technology, 2023 · Design: parallel · n: Pigs 120; rats: 24 in Methods (abstract says 42) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 37969335DOI 10.5187/jast.2023.e44 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    2 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  33. PigLack of a nocturnal rise of serum melatonin in prepubertal gilts.
    Domestic animal endocrinology, 1992 · Design: other (four animal experiments; Exp 4 exogenous melatonin vs one control gilt) · n: Exp 4: 4 gilts (3 melatonin, 1 control) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 1617960DOI 10.1016/0739-7240(92)90029-w
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    3 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  34. RodentDissolving Microneedles for Transdermal Delivery of Melatonin: Fabrication, Characterization, and In Vivo Pharmacokinetic Evaluation in Mice.
    ACS applied bio materials, 2026 · Design: single-arm · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 42306921DOI 10.1021/acsabm.6c00235
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    3 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  35. RodentEffects of Melatonin Formulations on Caffeine-Evoked Cortical Activity and Pentobarbital-Induced Sleep in Mice.
    International journal of molecular sciences, 2026 · Design: parallel (randomized groups, two experiments) · n: 84 (both experiments) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 42589559DOI 10.3390/ijms27156906 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    4 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  36. RodentPreclinical Evidence for a Drug-Drug Interaction Between Cannabinol and Melatonin.
    Basic & clinical pharmacology & toxicology, 2025 · Design: parallel, randomized (terminal sampling, separate mice per time point) · n: 48 mice (in total, both experiments) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 39722474DOI 10.1111/bcpt.14120
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    7 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  37. RodentDevelopment, Characterization, and Evaluation of Potential Systemic Toxicity of a Novel Oral Melatonin Formulation.
    Pharmaceutics, 2024 · Design: single-dose animal PK / in vitro release study · n: Control n:3 and MEL n:3 (as printed) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 39065568DOI 10.3390/pharmaceutics16070871 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    7 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  38. RodentLC-MS/MS-Based Concurrent Quantification of Cannabidiol and Melatonin in Mouse Plasma to Elucidate Complex PK Interactions.
    Pharmaceutics, 2024 · Design: parallel, randomized (5 groups) · n: 30 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 39771491DOI 10.3390/pharmaceutics16121511 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    5 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  39. RodentBioavailability of Melatonin from Lentil Sprouts and Its Role in the Plasmatic Antioxidant Status in Rats.
    Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 2020 · Design: other (single-arm PK study in group 1; parallel groups 2-5 for 90-min bioavailability/bioactivity study) · n: 8 (PK) + 10 per group x 4 groups (bioavailability) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 32178261DOI 10.3390/foods9030330 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    9 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  40. RodentIn vitro and in vivo evaluation of organic solvent-free injectable melatonin nanoformulations.
    European journal of pharmaceutics and biopharmaceutics : official journal of Arbeitsgemeinschaft fur Pharmazeutische Verfahrenstechnik e.V, 2020 · Design: other (IV formulation comparison, repeated-measures microdialysis in same animals on days 7, 14, 21) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 32439308DOI 10.1016/j.ejpb.2020.05.003
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  41. RodentPK-PD based optimal dose and time for orally administered supra-pharmacological dose of melatonin to prevent radiation induced mortality in mice.
    Life sciences, 2019 · Design: parallel · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 30625289DOI 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.01.007
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    7 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  42. RodentMelatonin loaded with bacterial cellulose nanofiber by Pickering-emulsion solvent evaporation for enhanced dissolution and bioavailability.
    International journal of pharmaceutics, 2019 · Design: parallel · n: 18 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 30731257DOI 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.01.059
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    9 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  43. RodentPreparation, characterization and in vitro evaluation of melatonin-loaded porous starch for enhanced bioavailability.
    Carbohydrate polymers, 2018 · Design: parallel · n: 12 rats (as printed) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 30286985DOI 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.08.127
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    8 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  44. RodentMelatonin pharmacokinetics after transdermal administration changes according to the time of the day.
    European journal of pharmaceutical sciences : official journal of the European Federation for Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2017 · Design: other (within-animal repeated-measures at two Zeitgeber times; not described as randomized) · n: 5 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 27644893DOI 10.1016/j.ejps.2016.09.020
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  45. RodentMelatonin-loaded silica coated with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate for enhanced oral bioavailability: Preparation, and in vitro-in vivo evaluation.
    European journal of pharmaceutics and biopharmaceutics : official journal of Arbeitsgemeinschaft fur Pharmazeutische Verfahrenstechnik e.V, 2017 · Design: other (parallel groups, randomised per Methods; preclinical formulation comparison) · n: 9 (Methods text) / '3 groups of six' (inconsistent) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 27865856DOI 10.1016/j.ejpb.2016.11.003
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    8 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  46. RodentEffects of Melatonin on Glucose Homeostasis, Antioxidant Ability, and Adipokine Secretion in ICR Mice with NA/STZ-Induced Hyperglycemia.
    Nutrients, 2017 · Design: other (randomized parallel groups for efficacy; same-animal two-dose PK sub-study) · n: 40 (efficacy); 6 (PK) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 29109369DOI 10.3390/nu9111187 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    4 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  47. RodentNew findings on melatonin absorption and alterations by pharmaceutical excipients using the Ussing chamber technique with mounted rat gastrointestinal segments.
    International journal of pharmaceutics, 2009 · Design: other (in vitro Ussing chamber, ex vivo rat tissue) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 19465096DOI 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.05.024
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    7 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  48. RodentPreclinical evaluation of pharmacokinetics and safety of melatonin in propylene glycol for intravenous administration.
    Journal of pineal research, 2006 · Design: other (two-dose parallel preclinical IV PK and safety study) · n: 16 (PK substudy) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 17014690DOI 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2006.00372.x
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    1 verbatim quote · view in JSON
  49. RodentPrimary pharmaco-toxicological evaluation of 2-iodomelatonin, a potent melatonin agonist.
    Life sciences, 1993 · Design: other (animal pharmaco-toxicological experiments) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 8412502DOI 10.1016/0024-3205(93)90596-u
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    2 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  50. Other animalDesign of multi-particulate "Dome matrix" with sustained-release melatonin and delayed-release caffeine for jet lag treatment.
    International journal of pharmaceutics, 2020 · Design: parallel (2 groups, n=3/group) · n: 6 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 32673769DOI 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119618
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    3 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  51. Other animalEffects of melatonin administration on seminal plasma metabolites and sperm fertilization competence during the non-reproductive season in ram.
    Theriogenology, 2018 · Design: other (randomized two-group parallel; treated vs untreated) · n: 8 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 29702366DOI 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.04.018
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    2 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  52. Other animalA novel LC-MS/MS assay for the simultaneous determination of melatonin and its two major metabolites, 6-hydroxymelatonin and 6-sulfatoxymelatonin in dog plasma: Application to a pharmacokinetic study.
    Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis, 2016 · Design: single-arm · n: 6 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 26440286DOI 10.1016/j.jpba.2015.09.028
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    2 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  53. Other animalCaenorhabditis elegans as an alternative in vivo model to determine oral uptake, nanotoxicity, and efficacy of melatonin-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules on paraquat damage.
    International journal of nanomedicine, 2015 · Design: other (in vivo nematode model) · n: 20 worms analyzed per uptake time point; three independent experiments · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 26300641DOI 10.2147/IJN.S84909 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    1 verbatim quote · view in JSON
  54. Other animalIntranasal administration of melatonin starch microspheres.
    International journal of pharmaceutics, 2004 · Design: parallel (three groups) animal PK; also in vitro release and gamma scintigraphy nasal clearance (6 rabbits) · n: 12 rabbits in vivo PK (Methods 2.5.4) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 15019067DOI 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2003.11.028
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    4 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  55. Other animalIntranasal absorption of melatonin in vivo bioavailability study.
    International journal of pharmaceutics, 1999 · Design: other (modified crossover, n=6, three legs with 7-day washout: nasal, i.v., nasal) · n: 6 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 10332069DOI 10.1016/s0378-5173(99)00019-8
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    3 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  56. Other animalA method of achieving physiological plasma levels of melatonin in the chicken by oral administration.
    Journal of pineal research, 1999 · Design: other (three separate dose/delivery-method experiments; E2 placebo-controlled) · n: E1 15; E2 16; E3 9 · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 10535761DOI 10.1111/j.1600-079x.1999.tb00607.x
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    8 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  57. Other animalDiurnal rhythm of melatonin in bovine milk: pharmacokinetics of exogenous melatonin in lactating cows and goats.
    Acta veterinaria Scandinavica, 1998 · Design: single-arm · n: 4 cows + 4 goats (PK) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes (free in PMC)
    PMID 9787493DOI 10.1186/BF03547778 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    2 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  58. In vitroUnraveling Cannabidiol's Bidirectional Regulation of Melatonin Pharmacokinetics via PEPT1/CYP1A2: Mechanistic Insights and Quantitative Projections.
    Pharmaceuticals (Basel, Switzerland), 2025 · Design: other (animal PK drug-interaction study; randomized groups, parallel) · n: beagles 12; rats 24 (methods) + 12 (ABT) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 41599679DOI 10.3390/ph19010080 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    10 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  59. In vitroDesigning an effective dissolution test for bilayer tablets tailored for optimal melatonin release in sleep disorder management.
    Frontiers in nutrition, 2024 · Design: other (specify) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: yes
    PMID 38769992DOI 10.3389/fnut.2024.1394330 (free full text)
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    4 verbatim quotes · view in JSON
  60. In vitroThe Effect of Melatonin Adsorbed to Polyethylene Glycol Microspheres on the Survival of MCF-7 Cells.
    Neuroimmunomodulation, 2016 · Design: other (in vitro) · n: 3 (release assay, Fig. 1); 5 (cell assays) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 26445481DOI 10.1159/000439277
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    1 verbatim quote · view in JSON
  61. In vitroEffect of fatty acids on the permeation of melatonin across rat and pig skin in-vitro and on the transepidermal water loss in rats in-vivo.
    The Journal of pharmacy and pharmacology, 1999 · Design: other (in vitro Franz diffusion cell study) · full text (PDF extraction) · open access: no
    PMID 10467952DOI 10.1211/0022357991773140
    Verification: values extracted verbatim from the full-text PDF (bundle 2, 2026-11-02); reviewer check pending
    5 verbatim quotes · view in JSON

Reviewer

Dr. Colin Reily, PhD

Dr. Colin Reily, PhD

PhD, molecular pathology (UAB); BS, molecular biology & biochemistry (St. Olaf College). Reviews the science and evidence (not medical advice).

Draft, pending sign-off Next review: set at sign-off

Animal and lab findings are labeled and never presented as proof of effects in people. Claims are limited to what the cited studies report. See our methodology.